AI-Enabled Mass Surveillance in Africa: Privacy, Rights, and Regulatory Gaps

As reported in The Guardian, Artificial intelligence-powered mass surveillance is rapidly expanding across the African continent, raising serious concerns about privacy violations and the erosion of civil liberties. A new report by the Institute of Development Studies, co-authored by researchers from the African Digital Rights Network, has found that at least eleven African governments have collectively spent over $2 billion on Chinese-built surveillance technology. The report covers 11 countries, Algeria, Egypt, Kenya, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, and is the most comprehensive analysis of public space surveillance on the continent to date. The findings highlight the urgent need for robust regulatory frameworks to govern the use of these systems.

The scale of investment in Africa's surveillance spending:

• Nigeria leads with $470 million on AI-enabled facial recognition and automatic number plate recognition systems;
• Mauritius follows at $456 million;
• Kenya is third at $219 million.

Much of this investment is funded through soft loans from Chinese banks tied to the purchase of equipment from suppliers such as Hikvision, Huawei, and ZTE.

The technology packages include thousands of smart CCTV cameras that transmit geo-located facial recognition and vehicle data to command and control centres for police and security operatives in real time.

The human rights concern

Despite the stated objective of enhancing public safety, the report found no compelling evidence that surveillance reduces crime. Court records show that few prosecutions have been secured through surveillance footage. The report notes that mass surveillance is being deployed even in countries that, according to the researchers, face no terrorist threat or serious crime challenges. This raises questions about the true purpose of surveillance.

Wairagala Wakabi, co-author of the report, stated that large-scale, AI-enabled surveillance of public spaces is neither "legal, necessary, nor proportionate" to the legitimate aim of providing security. He described it as the latest tool used by governments to invade privacy and stifle freedom of expression.

Country-specific concerns are mounting:

• In Zimbabwe, government critics fear facial recognition is being used to target them.
• In Mozambique, cameras have been deployed where political opposition is concentrated.
• In Uganda, a company’s technicians reportedly helped security agencies to intercept opposition communications.
• In Kenya, surveillance was used to monitor activists during protests in 2024 and 2025, with several subsequently abducted.

The chilling effect

Dr Tony Roberts, co-author of the report, emphasised that unregulated surveillance has a chilling effect on society, inhibiting peaceful protest and reducing the freedom to hold governments to account. Whilst surveillance of terrorists and serious criminals can be justified, the mass surveillance of all citizens suspected of no crime violates important human rights.

Yosr Jouini, who authored the Algeria section, observed that systems introduced as ‘smart city’ projects frequently evolved into the primary tools of the security forces. She highlighted how the role of street protests in driving political change in Algeria in 2019 and 2021, but warned that expanding surveillance could deter future demonstrations. Even where arrests cannot be confirmed as camera-based, the mere possibility deters public participation.

The regulatory challenge

Crucially, none of the eleven countries studied conducted a human rights risk assessment before implementing their surveillance projects. This means that governments were left operating without adequate safeguards or oversight.

Bulelani Jili, an assistant professor at Georgetown University, cautioned that even introducing laws could prove dangerous, given that surveillance is often legitimised through legislation that criminalises ordinary citizens. He argued that the real challenge lies in how societies negotiate the balance between security and civil liberties once these technologies become deeply institutionalised.

Wakabi called for governments to be fully transparent about their procurement and use of smart city technology, emphasising that recording and retaining facial images without consent infringes with the right to privacy.

Looking ahead

Although China remains the largest supplier, companies from South Korea, Russia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Israel, France, the United States, and others are also competing for contracts.

For organisations operating in African markets, these developments underscore the importance of understanding local regulatory environments and the ethical risks associated with surveillance technologies. As these systems become embedded in public administration, questions surrounding accountability and fundamental freedoms will become increasingly pressing.